Kiekvieną sekundę Saulė į Žemę išspinduliuoja tiek energijos, kad daugiau nei dvi valandas patenkintų visą žmogaus energijos poreikį. Kadangi saulės energija yra lengvai prieinama ir atsinaujinanti, ji yra patrauklus energijos šaltinis. Tačiau 2018 m. duomenimis, mažiau nei du procentai pasaulio energijos buvo gaunama iš saulės energijos. Istoriškai saulės energijos gavyba buvo brangi ir palyginti neefektyvi.
Vis dėlto net ir toks menkas saulės energijos naudojimas yra pagerėjimas, palyginti su ankstesniais dviem dešimtmečiais, nes nuo 2000 m. iki 2019 m. pasaulyje iš saulės energijos surenkamos energijos kiekis padidėjo daugiau kaip 300 kartų. Per pastaruosius dvidešimt metų šią didesnę priklausomybę nuo saulės energijos lėmė nauja technologinė pažanga, nes sumažėjo sąnaudos, o nauji technologiniai pasiekimai žada padidinti šį saulės energijos naudojimą dar labiau sumažinant sąnaudas ir padidinant saulės kolektorių efektyvumą.
Saulės elementai: Kainos, iššūkiai ir dizainas
Per pastaruosius 20 metų išlaidos, susijusios su saulės elementais – struktūromis, galinčiomis šviesos energiją paversti elektra, – nuolat mažėjo. Nacionalinė atsinaujinančiosios energijos laboratorija, JAV vyriausybinė laboratorija, tirianti saulės elementų technologiją, apskaičiavo, kas prisideda prie didėjančio saulės energijos įperkamumo.
Jų vertinimu, „kietosios” sąnaudos, t. y. fizinės saulės elementų įrangos sąnaudos, ir „minkštosios” sąnaudos, apimančios darbo jėgos sąnaudas arba sąnaudas reikiamiems vyriausybės leidimams gauti, yra maždaug vienodos (1 pav.). Minkštosios sąnaudos sumažėjo, nes yra daugiau potencialių vartotojų ir daugiau naujų saulės elementų montavimo specialistų, todėl įmonės gali gaminti saulės elementus dideliais kiekiais ir lengvai juos montuoti. Kietosios sąnaudos yra mažiau nei perpus mažesnės nei 2000 m., daugiausia dėl mažėjančių medžiagų sąnaudų ir didesnio elementų gebėjimo surinkti šviesą.
Norint sukurti ekonomiškesnius ir efektyvesnius saulės elementus, reikėjo ne tik kruopščiai išnagrinėti fizikinius saulės surinkimo procesus, bet ir sukurti naujovišką dizainą.
Kadangi saulės elementai naudojami šviesai paversti elektra, jie turi būti sudaryti iš tam tikros medžiagos, kuri gerai surenka šviesos energiją. Ši medžiaga gali būti įterpta tarp dviejų metalinių plokštelių, kurios iš šviesos energijos surinktą elektros energiją perduoda ten, kur jos reikia, pavyzdžiui, į namų apšvietimą ar gamyklos mašinas. Pasirenkant tinkamą medžiagą šviesai surinkti, reikia išmatuoti skirtumą tarp dviejų energijos lygmenų, vadinamų valentine juosta ir laidumo juosta.
Žemesnės energijos valentinė juosta užpildyta daugybe mažų neigiamai įkrautų dalelių, vadinamų elektronais, o aukštesnės energijos laidumo juosta dažniausiai yra tuščia. Kai į elektronus patenka šviesos dalelės, vadinamos fotonais, jie gali absorbuoti pakankamai energijos, kad peršoktų iš mažos energijos laidumo juostos į didelės energijos valentinę juostą. Patekęs į valentinę juostą, elektronas papildomą energiją gali gauti kaip elektros energiją. Elektronai tarsi sėdi kalvos apačioje (laidumo juostoje), o į juos pataikęs fotonas suteikia jiems energijos, kad jie galėtų peršokti į viršūnę (valentinę juostą).
Energijos kiekis, kurio reikia, kad elektronai peršoktų į valentinę juostą, priklauso nuo medžiagos tipo. Iš esmės metaforinio kalno dydis priklauso nuo konkrečios medžiagos savybių. Šio energijos atotrūkio dydis svarbus, nes nuo jo priklauso, kaip efektyviai saulės elementai šviesą paverčia elektra. Jei fotonai į elektronus patenka su mažesne energija, nei reikia elektronui peršokti iš valentinės juostos į laidumo juostą, jokia šviesos energija neperimama. Jei šviesa turi daugiau energijos, nei reikia šiai spragai įveikti, elektronas pagauna tik reikiamą energiją, o likusią iššvaisto. Abu šie scenarijai lemia neefektyvų saulės energijos surinkimą, todėl svarbu pasirinkti saulės elementų medžiagą.
Istoriškai populiariausia saulės elementų medžiaga buvo silicis. Viena iš tokio populiarumo priežasčių yra tarpas tarp silicio laidumo ir valentinės juostų, nes daugumos šviesos dalelių energija yra labai artima energijai, kurios reikia silicio elektronams peršokti energijos tarpą.
Teoriškai apie 32 % šviesos energijos silicio saulės elementas gali paversti elektros energija. Tai gali atrodyti nedaug, tačiau jis yra gerokai efektyvesnis nei dauguma kitų medžiagų. Be to, silicis yra nebrangus. Jis yra vienas gausiausiai paplitusių elementų žemėje, o jo išgryninimo kaina nuo 1980 m. labai sumažėjo. Gryninimo sąnaudos sumažėjo dėl saulės elementų ir elektronikos pramonės šakų, nes jos išmoko taikyti geresnius masinio gryninimo būdus, kurie skatina saulės elementų ir buitinės elektronikos paklausą.
Saulės elementų ateitis
Norint pralenkti dabartinius saulės elementus, naujoji konstrukcija turėtų sugerti daugiau šviesos, efektyviau transformuoti šviesos energiją į elektros energiją ir (arba) būti pigesnė nei dabartinės konstrukcijos. Energijos gamintojai ir vartotojai yra labiau linkę naudoti saulės energiją, jei jos gaminama energija yra tokia pat arba pigesnė už kitas, dažnai neatsinaujinančias elektros energijos rūšis, todėl bet koks dabartinių saulės elementų konstrukcijos patobulinimas turi sumažinti bendrąsias sąnaudas, kad jie taptų plačiai naudojami.
Pirmuoju atveju, t. y. pridėjus įrangą, kuri leistų saulės elementams surinkti daugiau šviesos, iš tikrųjų nereikia atsisakyti dabartinės saulės elementų konstrukcijos. Prie saulės elemento galima prijungti elektronikos prietaisus, kurie leistų elementui sekti saulę, kai ji juda dienos dangumi. Jei saulės elementas visada bus nukreiptas į saulę, į jį pateks daug daugiau fotonų nei tuo atveju, jei jis būtų nukreiptas į saulę tik vidurdienį. Šiuo metu sukurti elektronikos prietaisus, kurie už priimtiną kainą kelis dešimtmečius galėtų tiksliai ir nuosekliai sekti saulės padėtį, yra nuolatinis iššūkis, tačiau inovacijos šioje srityje vis dar diegiamos. Alternatyva pačiam saulės elementui judėti – naudoti veidrodžius, kad šviesa būtų nukreipta į mažesnį, taigi pigesnį saulės elementą.
Kitas būdas pagerinti saulės elementų veikimą – padidinti jų efektyvumą, kad saulės šviesos energija būtų geriau paverčiama elektra. Saulės elementai su daugiau nei vienu šviesą sulaikančios medžiagos sluoksniu gali surinkti daugiau fotonų nei saulės elementai su vienu sluoksniu. Neseniai laboratorijoje išbandyti saulės elementai su keturiais sluoksniais gali surinkti 46 % į juos patekusios šviesos energijos. Šie elementai vis dar dažniausiai yra per brangūs ir sunkiai pritaikomi komerciniam naudojimui, tačiau vykdomi moksliniai tyrimai vieną dieną gali padėti įgyvendinti šiuos itin efektyvius elementus.
Alternatyva saulės elementų efektyvumo didinimui – tiesiog mažinti jų kainą. Nors per pastaruosius kelis dešimtmečius silicio apdirbimas tapo pigesnis, jis vis dar labai prisideda prie saulės elementų įrengimo kainos. Naudojant plonesnius saulės elementus, mažėja medžiagų sąnaudos. Šiuose „plonasluoksniuose saulės elementuose” šviesos energijai surinkti naudojamas tik 2-8 mikrometrų storio medžiagos sluoksnis, t. y. tik apie 1 % medžiagos, kuri naudojama tradiciniams saulės elementams gaminti. Kaip ir daugiasluoksnius elementus, plonasluoksnius saulės elementus yra šiek tiek sudėtinga pagaminti, todėl jų taikymas yra ribotas, tačiau moksliniai tyrimai tęsiami.
Tikėtina, kad artimiausioje ateityje silicio saulės elementų kaina ir toliau mažės, o jų bus įdiegta daug. Numatoma, kad Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose dėl šių mažėjančių sąnaudų iki 2050 m. saulės energijos gamyba padidės bent 700 %. Tuo tarpu bus tęsiami alternatyvių efektyvesnių ir pigesnių saulės elementų konstrukcijų tyrimai. Tikėtina, kad po kelerių metų ant mūsų saulės elektrinių ir stogų atsiras silicio alternatyvų, padedančių užtikrinti švarius ir atsinaujinančius energijos šaltinius. Šiuos patobulinimus padarė ir toliau darys įmanomais didėjanti masinė saulės elementų gamyba ir naujos technologijos, dėl kurių elementai tampa pigesni ir efektyvesni.
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